English

Great Books

Fables

THE ANIMALS SOCK OF THE PLAGUE - Jean de La Fontaine

Vocabulary

Grammar

The Parts of Speech

nouns

A noun is a word that names a person, place, thing, condition, feeling or event. There are
1. proper noun names a specific person, place, or thing and always begins with a capital letter. Examples: Adam, Tigris, Beijing, China, Monday, July, English. The first word in a sentence also starts
  with a capital letter. Write the names of people in your family. These names are proper nouns. Examples: John, Eve Names of your street, city, state or province, and nation are proper nouns. Example: 15 Oak Street, Cole, Iowa 97030; U.S.A.
  Make a list of mountains, rivers, lakes, seas, or oceans in your area. Each of these words is a proper noun and should begin with a capital letter. Examples: Mount Everest; Nile River; Dead Sea. A proper noun is the official name of a person, place, or thing. Examples: David, Mary, Dallas, Texas, Egypt, Everest, and Amazon. A proper noun always begins with a capital letter.
2. common noun is a word that names any kind of person, place, or thing. Examples: man, woman, river, lake, city, country, day, month, language. A common noun never begins with a capital letter except at the beginning of a sentence or when used with a proper noun. The words “river” and “college” are common nouns, but when they are used to specify a certain river or college, they become proper nouns and are capitalized. Examples: Columbia River; Columbia Christian College. Whenever a common noun is used to set a person, place, or thing apart from others of the same class, it becomes a proper noun.
3. collective noun refers to a group of people or things that are bound together as a unit. A collective noun is singular in form, but refers to more than one. Examples: assembly, crew, fleet, flock, herd, jury, litter, swarm, school, family, team.
4. concrete noun names a person, place, or thing that can be heard, seen, smelled, tasted, or touched. Examples: owl, banana, cake, train, oil, pig, man, house, flower, joke, swan. We become aware of these persons and material objects through the physical senses.
5. abstract noun names a quality, feeling, or idea. Examples: love, fear, intelligence, goodness, strength, grace, beauty, humor. These are general. They do not refer to a certain case or example or to a material object. We become aware of them through our thoughts and emotions.
6. specific noun is a noun that names a certain class of persons or things. Examples: dog, crow, rose, ant.
7. nonspecific noun is general in nature and does not specify a certain class of person or things. Examples: animal, bird, flower, insect
8. A singular noun is a noun that names only one person, place, or thing.
9. A plural noun is a noun that names more than one person, place, or thing.
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Most nouns can be made plural by simply adding "s."
Examples: bird--birds; flower-- flowers; tree--trees.

However, nouns that end with "s," "sh," "ch," "x," or "z" are made plural by adding "es."
Examples: glass--glasses; wish--wishes; church--churches; fox--foxes.

Also, nouns that end with an "o" preceded by a consonant are made plural by adding "es."
Examples: mosquito--mosquitoes; potato--potatoes; hero--heroes. Sentence: "Idaho is famous for its potatoes."

Nouns that end with a consonant followed by a "y" are made plural by changing the "y" to "i" and adding "es."
Examples: library--libraries; secretary--secretaries; baby--babies; city-- cities.

However, when a noun ends with a vowel followed by a "y", it is made plural by simply adding "s."
Examples: journey--journeys; key--keys; toy--toys. Sentence: "He has nine keys in his pocket."

Most nouns that end with "f" or "fe" are made plural by changing the ending to "ves."
Example: knife--knives; leaf--leaves; wife--wives. Sentence: "She has twenty-three knives in her kitchen."

IRREGULAR NOUN FORMS - Some nouns are spelled the same whether they are singular or plural.
Example: antelope, deer, fish, sheep
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1. A possessive noun is a noun that indicates ownership or relationship. Examples: the boy’s bicycle; the girl’s doll; the man’s strength; the woman’s beauty.
Most singular nouns are made possessive by simply adding an apostrophe (‘) and an “s.” Examples: child–child’s; teacher–teacher’s. Sentence: “This is the teacher’s book.”

Plural nouns that end in “s” or “es” are made possessive by adding an apostrophe (‘) to the end of the word. Examples: candles–candles’; daughters–daughters’; mothers–mothers’; ships– ships’; teachers–teachers’.

Plural nouns that do not end with “s” are made possessive by adding an apostrophe (‘) and an “s” to the end of the word. Examples: children–children’s; men–men’s; people–people’s; women–women’s.
1. PROPERTIES OF NOUNS
All nouns have four characteristics called “properties”:
- gender > Masculine, Feminine, Common, Neuter
- person > first person noun refers to a person who is doing the speaking second person noun refers to a person who is being addressed third person noun refers to a person or thing being spoken about.
- number
- case > nominative case is the use of a noun (or pronoun) as the subject of a sentence, or as the predicate following a linking verb objective case is the use of a noun (or pronoun) as an object in a sentence possessive case is the use of a noun (or pronoun) to show ownership or relationship
pronouns

A pronoun is a word that takes the place of a noun. Examples: I, you, he, she, it, we, they, them, this, that, these, those, who, which, what. Sentence: “I love you.” The pronoun “I” is always capitalized.
1. personal pronouns
2. indefinite pronouns A pronoun that does not identify its antecedent. A pronoun that refers to an unspecified person or thing. Sentence: “God promised to send someone to defeat Satan.” In this sentence, “someone” is an indefinite pronoun.
3. relative pronouns A pronoun which introduces a group of words that tell about the antecedent. Examples: that, which, who, whom, whose.
4. interrogative A pronoun that asks a question. Examples: who, what, which, whom, whose.
5. demonstrative A pronoun that singles out the person, place, or thing to which it refers. Examples: this, that, these, those.
adjectives

An adjective is a word that describes or limits a noun or a pronoun. Examples: a, an, the, one, my, our, your, her, his, its, their, red, big, good, evil, tall, short. Sentence: “Your mother is a good woman.”
1. descriptive adjective An adjective that describes a noun by telling about some quality that belongs to the noun. Sentence: “I will cause you to become a great nation.” The word “great” is a descriptive adjective.
2. limiting adjective An adjective that restricts, limits, or sets boundaries on a noun or pronoun without describing any of its qualities. Sentences: “The Lord made a promise to Abram.” The article “a” refers to only one promise and is, therefore, a “limiting adjective.
3. predicate adjective An adjective that follows a linking verb and tells something about the subject of the sentence. Sentence: “Abram became sleepy and fell asleep.” “Sleepy” is a predicate adjective which describes Abram.
4. pronominal adjective A pronoun that is used as an adjective; a pronoun that tells about a noun or another pronoun. Sentence: “Get seven pairs of all the birds.” The pronominal adjective, “all,” answers the question, “How many birds?”
5. positive degree The form of an adjective which tells us that a certain quality exists in a person, place, or thing. Example: “A bright light suddenly appeared in the sky.” The adjective “bright” is in the positive degree
6. comparative degree The form of an adjective which compares two objects, and says that one has a higher or lower degree of a quality than the other. Example: “This light is brighter than that one.”
7. superlative degree The form of an adjective which compares three or more objects and says that one has the highest or lowest degree of a quality. Example: “Abel brought the best sheep to God as a gift.” The adjective “best” is in the superlative degree.

IRREGULAR COMPARATIVE FORMS

Positive	Comparative	Superlative
bad	worse	worst
far (measurable distance)	farther	farthest
far (measurable progress)	further	furthest
good	better	best
little	less	least
many	more	most

verbs

A verb is a word that expresses action or state of being. Examples of action verbs: run, walk, fly, teach, learn, eat, sleep, work. “They walk to school.” State of being verbs: be, is, am, are, feel, appear, sound, seem. Sentence: “They are tall.”

action verb A word that expresses mental or physical activity. Example: “Abraham’s servant took ten camels and loaded them with gifts.” The words “took” and “loaded” are action verbs.
helping verb A verb that helps the main verb express action, condition, or state of being. Example: “God will surely listen to our prayers.” “Will” is a helping verb.
linking verb A verb that links the subject to a word which tells what the subject is or seems to be. Example: “To God, everyone is important.” “Is” is a linking verb.
main verb A verb that expresses the main thought or action in a verb phrase. Example: “The Lord has led me to the right girl for my master’s son.” In this sentence, the word “has” is the helping verb, and “led” is the main verb.
transitive verb A verb that requires an object to complete its meaning. Example: “God answers prayer.” In this sentence, the word “answers” is a transitive verb. The object, “prayer,” is necessary to complete the meaning of “answers.”
intransitive verb A verb that does not require an object to complete its meaning. Example: “Isaac’s mother died.” “Died” is an intransitive verb.

PROPERTIES OF VERBS

(1) voice is the arrangement of words in a sentence to show the relation between the subject and the action expressed by the verb Transitive verbs have two voices: (a) active, and (b) passive. (2) mood is the manner in which action or state of being is expressed by a verb. In English, there are three moods: (a) indicative, (b) subjunctive, and (c) imperative (3) person In English, a verb must agree with the subject in person and number. (4) number (5) tense Tense is a property of verbs that indicates the time of the action or state of being expressed by a verb. There are three divisions of time: (1) past, (2) present, and (3) future. Each of these divisions has two tenses:(a) simple, and (b) perfect.

The simple present tense denotes action or state of being that is occurring at the present time. Examples: “Your voice sounds like Jacob’s voice, but your arms are hairy like the arms of Esau.”
The simple past tense denotes action that happened in the past. Examples: “Rebekah prayed to the Lord.”
The simple future tense denotes action that will take place in the future.
The present perfect tense denotes action that began at some point in the past and has continued to the present. Examples: “I have done the things you told me.”
The past perfect tense expresses action completed in the past before some other past event. Example: “Jacob had worked for Laban twenty years when he left Haran and returned home.”
The future perfect tense denotes action that will be completed in the future before some other future event. Example: “On June 29th, I will have worked here two full years.”

BASIC VERB FORMS

Present tense verb forms show that the action or state of being expressed by a verb is happening now and is ongoing. Examples: “Here comes Joseph, the one who dreams.” The present tense plural form of a verb does not end with “s.” Its subject is a plural noun or the pronoun “I,” “you,” “we,” or “they.” The present tense plural form is the base form of a verb. When the subject of a sentence is a singular indefinite pronoun (another, anyone, anything, each, either, everybody, everything, neither, nobody, nothing, somebody, etc.), the verb form must also be singular. When the subject of a sentence is a plural indefinite pronoun (both, few, many, several), the verb form must also be plural.
Past tense verb forms show that the action or state of being expressed by a verb took place in the past. For regular verbs, the past tense form is created by adding “d” or “ed” to the base form of the verb. Example: “Our dogs chase cats.” “Yesterday, they chased three cats out of the yard.” Other verbs, however, are made past tense by changing letters inside the verb, not by adding “d” or “ed” to the base form. These verbs are called “irregular verbs.”
The present participle verb form is made up of the base form of a verb + “ing,” and always follows the helping verb “be” or one of its forms (“am,” “are,” “is,” “was,” “were”). Example: “Their camels were carrying many different spices and riches.” When a present tense form of “be” (“is,” “am,” “are”) is used with a present participle form, the verb phrase tells of continuing action in the present. Example: “God is blessing us.” When a past tense form (“was” or “were”) is used with a present participle form, the verb phrase tells of continuing action in the past. Example: “We were working in the field.”
The past participle verb form is made up of the base form of a verb + “d,” “ed,” or “en,” and always follows the helping verb “have” or one of its forms (“has” or “had”). Example: “Maybe some wild animal has killed him.” When “have” or “has” is used with a past participle verb form, the verb phrase tells of continuing action in the present perfect tense. Example: “God has shown you what will happen.” When “had” is used with a past participle verb form, the verb phrase tells of continuing action in the past perfect tense. Example: “The wine server remembered that Joseph had interpreted a dream for him.” When “will have” is used with a past participle verb form, the verb phrase tells of continuing action in the future perfect tense. Example: “By the time you finish this course, you will have learned many things about English and about God.”

REGULAR VERBS

Present	Past	Past Participle	Present Participle
ask	asked	(have) asked	(am) asking
bake	baked	(have) baked	(am) baking
paint	painted	(have) painted	(am) painting
start	started	(have) started	(am) starting

IRREGULAR VERBS

Present	Past	Past Participle	Present Participle
begin	began	(have) begun	(am) beginning
break	broke	(have) broken	(am) breaking
choose	chose	(have) chosen	(am) choosing
do	did	(have) done	(am) doing
eat	ate	(have) eaten	(am) eating
fall	fell	(have) fallen	(am) falling
fly	flew	(have) flown	(am) flying
get	got	(have) gotten	(am) getting
go	went	(have) gone	(am) going
read (reed)	read (red)	(have) read (red)	(am) reading (reeding)
ride	rode	(have) ridden	(am) riding
see	saw	(have) seen	(am) seeing
sing	sang	(have) sung	(am) singing
speak	spoke	(have) spoken	(am) speaking
take	took	(have) taken	(am) taking
throw	threw	(have) thrown	(am) throwing
write	wrote	(have) written	(am) writing

adverbs

An adverb is a word that describes or limits a verb, an adjective, or another adverb. Examples: then, today, now, tomorrow, soon, here, there, everywhere, quickly, beautifully, carefully, well, barely, nearly, completely. Sentence: “They walk quickly.”

Adverbs describe action or state of being by answering such questions as where, when, how, how much, and why.
1. Adverbs that tell where (place): above, across, around, back, backwards, below, down,everywhere, far, forward, here, nowhere, out, over, sideways, somewhere, there, through, under, up, upstairs, wherever and, where.
2. Adverbs that tell when (time): again, always,before, early, eventually, forever, frequently, immediately, lately, never, now, occasionally, often, once, seldom, sometimes, soon, then, until, weekly, when, whenever, while and, yet.
3. Adverbs that tell how (manner): badly,beautifully,carefully,certainly,easily,earnestly,foolishly,nicely, probably,quickly,surely,sweetly,tirelessly and,well.
4. Adverbs that tell how much (degree): as, almost, altogether, chiefly, completely, enough, entirely, equally, especially, even, exceptionally, extremely, fairly, least, less, little, mildly, more, most, much, nearly, only, partly, rather, quite, scarcely, somewhat, thoroughly, too, truly, twice, unusually, very and, wholly.
5. Adverbs that tell why (cause): because, therefore, wherefore and, why.

FUNCTIONS OF ADVERBS

Adverbs perform various functions.

Some adverbs tell more about verbs. (a) “They acted wisely.” “Wisely” tells how they acted. (b) “They left yesterday.” “Yesterday” tells when they left. In each case, the adverb has given information about the verb.
Others modify adjectives. (a) “That is a very expensive ring.” “Very” suggests how much that ring costs. (b) “This ring is less expensive than that one.” “Less” suggests how little this ring costs.
Others give information about adverbs. “The frightened dog ran away very quickly.” “Very” modifies the adverb “quickly” by telling how quickly the dog ran away.
Some ask questions. “How are you feeling?” “When did you get here?” “Where are you going?”
Some say “yes” or “no.” Question: “Do you plan to go?” Answers: “Yes.” “Absolutely.” “Certainly.” Each means, “I plan to go.”
Others serve as conjunctions, linking clauses together. Adverbs that join clauses together are called “conjunctive” adverbs. Examples: after, before, consequently, since, therefore, until, when, whenever, and wherever.

FORMING ADVERBS

In English, an adverb is usually formed by adding “ly” to an adjective. Examples: bad - badly; beautiful - beautifully; careful - carefully; quick - quickly. If the adjective ends in “y,” the “y” is changed to “i” before adding “ly.” Example: hearty - heartily; merry - merrily; ready - readily.

prepositions

A preposition is a word that shows the relationship between a word that comes before it, and a noun or pronoun that follows it. Examples: in, at, by, near, to, from, into, before, after, during, until, like. Sentence: “John ran to school.” THE WORDS BELOW ARE COMMONLY USED PREPOSITIONS: about, above, across, after, against, along, among, around, at, before, behind, below, beneath, beside, between, beyond, by, concerning, down, during, except, for, from, in, inside, into, like, near, of, off, on, over, past, since, through, throughout, to, toward, under, until, up, underneath, upon, with, within, without

SPECIAL RULES FOR USING PREPOSITIONS

When the subject of a sentence contains a prepositional phrase, the verb or verb phrase must agree with the main noun rather than the noun in the prepositional phrase. Example: “The girl with the flowers is our granddaughter.” The linking verb “is” is singular in number because it agrees with the main noun “girl,” not with the plural noun “flowers.”
“Among” is used when referring to more than two persons, places, or things. Examples: “I live among people that are not pure enough to speak to God.” “We walk among friends.”
“Between” is used when referring to two persons, places, or things. Examples: “The relationship between God and humanity was ruined by sin.” “Let us not come between two friends.”
Do not put unnecessary prepositions at the end of sentences. For example, it is incorrect to ask, “Where are the people at?” Ask, instead, “Where are the people?”
“Beside” means “next to.” Example: “They buried Abraham in the cave of Machpelah beside his beloved wife Sarah.”
“Besides” means “except” or “in addition to.” Example: “There was no food in the wilderness besides the manna.” It would be incorrect to say there was no food “beside” manna.

conjunctions

A conjunction is a word that connects words, phrases, or clauses to one another. Examples: and, but, yet. Sentence: “The son was hungry and needed money.” The conjunction “and” links the first part of the sentence with the second part.
interjections

An interjection is a word, or group of words, used to express sudden and strong feeling. Examples: Ah! Oh! Wow! Oh no! Sentence: “Oh! How I want to go home!” By learning the eight parts of speech and their meanings, you have taken a big step toward mastering the English language.

Types of Sentences

declarative

A declarative sentence makes a statement about something and ends with a period (.). Example: “A man had two sons.”
interrogative

An interrogative sentence asks a question and ends with a question mark (?). Example: “What does all this mean?”
imperative

An imperative sentence makes a request or gives a command, and ends with a period or an exclamation point (!). Examples: “Hurry!” “Bring our best calf and kill it so that we can celebrate.” In imperative sentences, “you” is understood: (You) bring our best calf.”
exclamatory

An exclamatory sentence says something with force and emotion and ends with an exclamation point (!). Example: “My son was dead, but now he is alive again!”

Sentence Patterns

SUBJECT + VERB + COMPLEMENT or OBJECT
- Subject + Verb: “He lives.”
- Subject + Verb + Complement: “He is alive.”
- Subject + Verb + Object: “An angel opened the tomb.”
SUBJECT + VERB + INDIRECT OBJECT + DIRECT OBJECT.
- Pilate gave Joseph permission.
- Jesus showed them the holes.
- The Father gave Jesus all authority.
SUBJECT + VERB + DIRECT OBJECT + PHRASE.
- Pilate gave permission to Joseph.
- Jesus showed the holes to theml
- The Father gave all authority to Jesus.
MODIFIER + SUBJECT + VERB + MODIFIER + COMPLEMENT or OBJECT.
- That day was a speical Sabbath day.
- Three women brought sweet-smelling spices.
- The angel was very bright.
SUBJECT + VERB + COMPLEMENT/OBJECT + MODIFIERS.
- Blood and water came out.
- The angel rolled the stone away.
- The women left the tomb quickly.
NEGATIVE STATEMENTS
- When used with present or past tense forms of the verb “be” (“am,” “is,” “are,” was,” and “were”), “not” follows the verb. Example: He is not guilty.
- When a sentence contains a simple present or past tense form of a verb other than “be,” it is made negative as follows: the verb is changed into a verb phrase made up of “do,” “does,” or “did” + the base form of the verb. Then “not” is placed after the helping verb “do,” “does,” or “did.” Example: A ghost does not have a body.
- In a sentence containing a verb phrase, “not” is placed after a helping verb and before the main verb in the verb phrase. Example: The could not believe their eyes. Positive statements can also be made negative by using the word “no” before the object. Example: “Jesus made no empty claims.”

SECTION I of TOEFL

comparative words and phrases, Comparative words and phrases fall into two classes:
- those that make equal comparisons and suggest equality (“same,” “same as” “equal to or with”), and
- those that make unequal comparisons (“less,” “more,” “less than,” “more than”).
concession words and clauses, Concession words and phrases concede certain truths and are used to contrast two thoughts or ideas. After yielding one truth, an unexpected and contrasting truth is stated. “although,” “but,” “despite,” “even though,” “in spite of,” and “though.”
conditional sentences, There are two types of conditional sentences : factual & hypothetical
- A factual sentence states a fact. It expresses an action that is happening or will happen if the conditions expressed in the dependent clause are met. e.g. “If the weather is good tomorrow, we can go fishing.”
- The hypothetical conditional sentence, however, contains a dependent clause which expresses conditions that have not been met or are not being met. Therefore, the independent clause in the sentence describes what might have been, or what might be if the conditions were to be met. “If it would stop raining, we could go fishing tomorrow.” “If wishes were horses, beggars would ride.”
homonyms and homophones, Homonyms
- BOARD (meals): “This travel package includes board and room.”
- BOARD (sawed lumber): “Watch out! That board has a nail in it.”
- BOARD (to go onto a ship or vehicle): “When we found a ship bound for Phoenicia, we went on board and set sail” (Acts 21:2, NRSV).
- BOARD (a group of people who provide leadership and guidance for a corporation): “Allen is a member of the Nations University board.”
- BORE (to make a hole): Be careful not to bore a hole in that door!”
- BORE (verb: to tire someone by tedious repetition): “Good speakers do not bore their audience.”
- BORE (noun: someone that is dull and uninteresting): “He is a bore.”
- FAIR (clear, free of clouds): “On a fair day, you can see forever.”
- FAIR (festival): “I’m taking my family to the fair tomorrow.”
- FAIR (impartial): “He is a faithful God who does no wrong, who is right and fair” (Deuteronomy 32:4, NCV).
- FAIR (light complexioned; pleasing to the eyes): “She has fair skin.”
- FARE (fee): “Jonah . . . found a ship going to Tarshish; so he paid thefare and went down into it” (Jonah 1:3, NKJV).
- FARE (to get along): “See how your brothersfare, and bring me back news of them” (1 Samuel 17:18, NKJV).
- FARE (food): “The poor man had nothing but one little ewe lamb, which he had bought. He brought it up, and it grew up with him and with his children; it used to eat of his meager fare, and drink from his cup, and lie in his bosom” (2 Samuel 12:3, NRSV).
- WAVE (to signal by moving the hand): “The friends waved goodbye.”
- WAVE (a ripple or ridge of water): “Giant waves crashed into the rocks.”
Homophones
- BEAR (to carry): “My punishment is more than I can bear.”
- BARE (to expose): “Everything is uncovered and laid bare before the eyes of him to whom we must give account” (Hebrews 4:13, NIV).
- BORE (to make a hole): “Let’s borea hole in the board.”
- BOAR (an uncastrated male pig): “Farmer Brown has a big white boar.”
- BOARD (thin piece of lumber): “The wind blew a board off my fence.”
- BORED (weary, uninterested): “The student became bored in class.”
- BREAK (to damage): “Lay up for yourselves treasures in heaven where neither moth nor rust destroys and where thieves do not break in and steal” (Matthew 6:20, NKJV).
- BRAKE (a device for slowing or stopping a vehicle): “Put on the brakes!”
- BY (near): “My mother is standing by the door.”
- BUY (purchase): “Buy the truth, and do not sell it” (Proverbs 23:23).
- COARSE (rough, harsh): “John wore a robe of coarse hair.”
- COURSE (a unit of instruction): “Joe is taking a course in astronomy.
- CITE (to quote): “Mary can cite numerous passages from Shakespeare.
- SIGHT (noun: something seen): “Surely in vain the net is spread in the sight of any bird” (Proverbs 1:17, NKJV).
- SITE (a place): “Abraham lived from one tent site to another.”
- FAIR (just): “God is fair in all his judgments.”
- FARE (fee): “The bus fare was 75 cents.”
- FLOWER (blossom): “The grass withers, the flower fades, but the word of our God will stand forever” (Isaiah 40:8, NRSV).
- FLOUR (fine powder made by grinding grain): “The bin of flour shall not be used up, nor shall the jar of oil run dry” (1 Kings 17:14).
- MALE (masculine): “So God created man in his own image; in the image of God he created him, male and female he created them” (Genesis 1:27).
- MAIL (noun: letters, or a system of handling letters or packages): “They sent three packages through the mail.”
- MAIL (verb: to send letters or packages): “Would you please mail this letter for me?”
- MEAT (flesh): “It is better to eat vegetables with those who love you than to eat meatwith those who hate you” (Proverbs 15:17, NCV).
- MEET (to come upon): “You should meettogether and encourage each other” (Hebrews 10:25, NCV).
- NEED (verb: require): “The eye cannot say to the hand, ‘I don’t needyou!’“(1 Corinthians 12:21, NIV).
- KNEAD (to work dough): “Today, most bakers knead bread by machine.
- SEW (to stitch): “There is a time to tear apart and a time to sew together” (Ecclesiastes 3:7, NCV).
- SO (in a certain way): “For as a man thinks in his heart, so is he” (Proverbs 23:7, KJV).
- SOW (to scatter seed over the ground): “A sower went out to sow, and some seed fell by the path” (Matthew 13:3, RSV).
- WAIT (stay): “They who wait for the Lord shall renew their strength” (Isaiah 40:31, RSV).
- WEIGHT (heaviness): “Most people gain weight during the holidays.”
- WHOLE (entire): “Fear God and keep his commandments, for this is the whole duty of man” (Ecclesiastes 12:13, NIV).
- HOLE (cavity): “No one sews a patch of unshrunk cloth over a hole in an old coat. If he does, the patch will shrink and pull away from the coat, making the hole worse” (Matthew 9:16, NCV).
- WEAK (without strength): “For while we were still weak, at the right time, Christ died for the ungodly” (Romans 5:6, NKJV).
- WEEK (seven days): “Now when he arose early on the first day of the week, he appeared first to Mary Magdalene” (Mark 16:9, NKJV).
- WOOD (fibrous material beneath the bark of a tree or shrub): “Where there is no wood, the fire goes out, and where there is no talebearer, strife ceases” (Proverbs 26:20, NKJV).
- WOULD (an expression of desire, condition, or determination): “For he whowould love life and see good days, let him refrain his tongue from evil and his lips from speaking deceit” (1 Peter 3:10, NKJV).
- WAIST (the part of the body between the ribs and hips): “Taking a towel, he wrapped it around his waist. Then he poured water into a bowl and began to wash the followers’ feet” (John 13:4 5, NCV).
- WASTE (to use up without need or benefit): “Every kingdom divided against itself is laid waste, and no city or house divided against itself will stand” (Matthew 12:25, NRSV).
American English idioms,

spinning a yarn => elling a fantastic story Don’t pull my leg => don’t try to fool me with your ridiculous story Knockout => slang for a beautiful woman standoffish => aloof, distant, and reserved FUDDY-DUDDY (noun): someone whose ideas are old fashioned. BROWN-BAGGER (noun): someone who brings his lunch in a brown paper bag. STONE-BROKE (adjective): penniless SKIN-DEEP (adjective): superficial, only on the surface. COP-OUT (verb): slang for a flimsy excuse made to avoid responsibility. DOUBLE-CROSS (verb): to promise one thing and do another. BUG-EYED (adjective): slang for wide eyed with amazement. STUCK-UP (adj.): conceited, acting like you are better than others. TONGUE-LASHING (noun): a strong rebuke; a sharp criticism. PIP-SQUEAK (noun): a little, unimportant person. TWO-FACED (adj.): insincere, deceitful, changeable. YAK-YAK-YAK (noun): slang for a lot of talk about nothing. FALLING-OUT (noun): a disagreement; an argument. BREAK UP (verb): to terminate; to bring to an end. BREAKUP (noun): the end of a relationship. BAD EGG (noun): slang for someone who is good for nothing. BUTTER UP (verb): to try to gain someone’s favor by flattery. EAGER BEAVER (noun): slang for someone who works extra hard. HORSE AROUND (verb): slang for playing instead of working. DOCTOR UP (verb): to change, alter, or adulterate. FREAK OUT (verb): slang for losing control of one’s emotions. LOUSE UP (verb): slang for making a mess of things. DEAD DUCK (noun): someone in a hopeless situation. WEASEL OUT (verb): to back out of an obligation without good reason. SNOW JOB (noun): slang for insincere words used to persuade someone. BASKET CASE (noun): slang for someone who has fallen apart emotionally or physically and is unable to take care of himself. BAD BLOOD (noun): anger and distrust due to broken relationships. MAKE WAVES (verb): to cause a disturbance. BELLY UP (adjective): bankrupt and financially ruined. BESIDE ONESELF (adjective): going crazy; in a turmoil emotionally. BIG STINK (noun): a scandal or a major upheaval. BITTER PILL (noun): a big disappointment that is hard to accept. CLAMP DOWN (verb): to bring someone under control. TOUGH COOKIE (noun): someone who is hardheaded and extremely difficult to deal with. BLACK EYE (noun): a bad reputation. CHICKEN OUT (verb): to decide, because of fear, not to do something BUY OUT (verb): to purchase ownership from someone.

STORY I Frank and Koni were sweethearts(noun: a boy and a girl who are fond of each other.). They were all set(adjective: ready to begin something) to get married when Koni got cold feet(noun: a loss of courage and confidence) and backed out(verb: to withdraw from an intended activity).

Koni discovered some serious shortcomings(noun: weaknesses, faults, character flaws) in Frank. He relished playing dirty tricks(noun: a hurtful, unfair action) on her. And he would constantly butt in(verb: slang for an uninvited intrusion into something) while she was talking. Then he would get up tight(adjective: slang for irritated, excessively anxious) and bawl her out(BAWL OUT verb: to rebuke or scold in a loud, gruff voice..) Later he would simmer down(verb: to become less excited or angry.), apologize, and promise to shape up(verb: to begin to behave properly). But his tirades wore thin(verb: to grow less and less acceptable).

Worse yet, Frank had sticky fingers(noun: the habit of stealing things). One day, Koni discovered that he had made off with(verb: to leave with; to take) her money. When she confronted him, he shed crocodile tears(noun: pretended sorrow and grief.) and promised to go straight(verb: slang for becoming an honest person).

Frank was always trying to make a fast buck(noun: money earned quickly and often dishonestly), and he had a pipe dream(noun: an unrealistic plan) about getting filthy rich(adjective: extremely rich). Koni had the gut feeling(noun: an instinctive, intuitive sensation) that Frank was into drugs(noun: illegal narcotics). She was an early bird(noun: someone who gets out of bed early each morning) who came alive(verb: to become alert and active) at the crack of dawn(noun: when light first appears in the morning). But Frank was dead tired(adjective: exhausted) in the morning and sacked in(verb: slang for sleeping for a long period of time) until noon. He would make a date(verb: make an appointment to do something together) with Koni for lunch and fail to show up(verb: to appear; to come). Koni had a feeling he was spaced out(adjective: slang for confused and mentally incoherent). One day, she caught him smoking a joint(noun: slang for a “cigarette” made of marijuana) of marijuana. When she threatened to leave him, he got choked up(adjective: emotionally upset; unable to speak) and promised to quit cold turkey(adverb: slang for suddenly and without medical aid).

Then, one night, Koni caught Frank messing around(verb: to be morally loose and promiscuous) with another girl. He and the girl were making out(verb: to kiss and hug) in the back seat of a car. That was the straw that broke the camel's back(noun: a problem that, when added to others, becomes unbearable). Koni was steamed(adjective: very angry.). She threw the engagement ring at him, and walked away.

Koni’s friends, standing nearby, applauded. They said, “Good riddance(noun: a loss that makes one glad) to bad rubbish! It’s high time(adjective: a time when circumstances force action) you dumped(verb: to get rid of) that jerk(noun: slang for a person who is stupid, dull, and mean).”

Koni is still down in the dumps(adjective: sad and dejected), but she also feels a sense of relief.

STORY II Thousands of people turned out to hear King Herod speak in Caesarea. The people shouted, “This is the voice of a god, not a man.” Herod ate it up(EAT IT UP: like it.). Their praise turned him on(TURN ON: to arouse interest; to turn around and attack), and he went along with(GO ALONG WITH: to agree) their little game. But suddenly, he came down with(COME DOWN WITH: to become ill) a terrible sickness. His doctors called on(CALL ON: to ask; to visit) him and gave him a checkup(CHECKUP: examination by a doctor). They found out(FIND OUT: to discover) that his body was being eaten by worms. They talked things over(TALK OVER: to discuss), but before they could figure out(FIGURE OUT: to solve) what to do, death closed in on(CLOSE IN ON: to come nearer) their patient. Herod wanted to get on with(GET ON WITH: to continue) life, so he held on(HOLD ON: to wait; to endure). He held up(HOLD UP: to endure under pressure) for several days. He was counting on(COUNT ON: to depend on) his doctors to care for(CARE FOR: to like; to look after) him, but as his condition grew worse, they dropped out(DROP OUT OF: to withdraw from) of the picture. Herod learned too late that pride leads to destruction.

God had tried to get through(GET THROUGH: to finish; to make someone understand) to Herod, but Herod had given him the run around(GIVE SOMEONE THE RUN AROUND: to avoid someone). Herod thought he could get by(GET BY: manage to survive) without God. He even tried to take over for God(TAKE OVER FOR: to substitute for). Worse yet, he had tried to do away with(DO AWAY WITH: to get rid of) God. But in the end, Herod’s pride did him in(DO IN: to kill). Before Herod could check out(CHECK OUT: to borrow books; investigate the facts) his options, his soul took off(TAKE OFF: to leave the ground in flight) into eternity.”
1. OFF THE CUFF (adverb): informally, without advance preparation.
2. BEAT AROUND THE BUSH (verb): slang for talking in circles.
3. LAY THE CARDS ON THE TABLE (verb): to let people know exactly what you are thinking.
4. ON THE ROCKS (adjective): ruined, destroyed, wrecked.
5. GET ON THE BALL (verb): slang for being alert and getting to work.
6. BLOW IT (verb): slang for making a serious mistake.
7. FACE THE MUSIC (verb): to pay the consequences.
8. END OF ONE’S ROPE (noun): the end of one’s ability and ideas.
9. PUT ONE’S SHOULDER TO THE WHEEL (verb): putting one’s total energy and effort into a task.
10. BITE THE DUST (verb): to fall in defeat.
11. PUT ONE’S EAR TO THE GROUND (verb): give attention to what is going on and to what people are saying.
12. PICK THE BRAINS OF (verb): To borrow ideas from someone.
13. IN THE KNOW (adjective): expert; someone with knowledge.
14. CLUE ONE IN (verb): to inform someone.
15. GET UNDER ONE’S SKIN (verb): to irritate and upset someone.
16. KEEP A STIFF UPPER LIP (verb): to face trouble courageously.
17. KEEP ONE’S NOSE CLEAN (verb): slang for staying out of trouble.
18. KEEP UNDER ONE’S HAT (verb): to keep something a secret.
19. MEND ONE’S FENCES (verb): to make amends and restore friendship.
20. BLOW THE WHISTLE ON (verb): slang for informing on someone.
21. PULL THE RUG FROM UNDER (verb): to suddenly remove someone’s support.
22. PUT ONE’S FOOT IN ONE’S MOUTH (verb): to carelessly say things that hurt someone’s feelings.
23. ON ONE’S HIGH HORSE (adjective): acting superior to others and becoming angry and unfriendly.
24. PUT ONE DOWN (verb): to belittle someone with insults.
25. ON A SHOESTRING (adverb): on a low budget; with no money to waste.
26. HAVE A BALL (verb): slang for enjoying oneself.
27. TAKE THE BULL BY THE HORNS (verb): to act decisively.
28. TIGHTEN ONE’S BELT (verb): to spend less money than usual.
29. TURN OVER A NEW LEAF (verb): to start again; to begin anew.
30. WITH FLYING COLORS (adverb): with complete success.
31. SING A DIFFERENT TUNE (verb): declare a different message.
32. GET ONE’S FEET WET (verb): to get involved in something new.
33. BRING DOWN THE HOUSE (v.): cause people to cheer enthusiastically.
negative words and sentences, Remember, it is usually incorrect in English to use two negatives together. The negative words “barely,” , “hardly,” “rarely,” “scarcely,” and “seldom” must be used with positive verbs.
modals and perfectives, A modal is a helping verb that denotes mode or manner of action. A modal may also let us know when the action in the main verb takes place. The most common modals are “can,” “could,” “may,” “might,” “must,” “shall,” , “should,” “will,” and “would.” Modals often are combined with a perfective (“have”). A perfective is a word that expresses perfect (completed) action. A modal followed by a perfective indicates completed past action. Examples: “When David’s officers told him that Bathsheba was a married woman, that should have stopped David from pursuing her.” “David could have put Nathan to death for rebuking him, but he didn’t.” Notice that a modal + perfective combination is always followed by the past participle form of a verb. “Should” + “have,” or “supposed to” + “have” indicates failure to fulfill an obligation or responsibility. Example: “I should have reminded my cousins of the birthday party.” But I didn’t. “Someone was supposed to have reminded them.” But they didn’t.
references, and
numbers and simple mathematical calculations.

Sentence Structure

Every sentence must have at least one subject and one verb. The subject is a noun, pronoun, or gerund that tells who or what the sentence is about. Examples: “Glover (noun) is the managing editor of Christian Chronicle.” “He (pronoun) covers news stories from all parts of the world.” “Writing (gerund) is his hobby as well as his profession.” “Glover,” “He,” and “Writing” are the subjects of these three sentences.
Infinitives (“to” + verb) are not a part of the sentence’s verb. Example: “God uses our failures to teach us important lessons.” In this sentence, “to teach” is not a part of the verb. The verb is “uses.”
A noun or pronoun in a prepositional phrase cannot be the subject of a sentence. Example: “Travel into outer space has become almost commonplace in our time.” The nouns “space” and “time” cannot be a part of the sentence’s subject because they are objects of the prepositions “into” and “in.”“Travel” “ is the subject of the sentence. “Has become” is the verb.
The subject is located in an independent clause. Do not put the main thought of a sentence in a dependent clause. Example: “New Christians are often surprised when their old sinful self comes back to life.” The subject in this sentence is “Christians,” not “self.” “Self” is located in a dependent clause and is not, therefore, a part of the subject.
A dependent clause cannot stand alone. It depends on an independent clause for the completion of its thought. Examples: Wrong: “Students are expected to study. When they enter the library.” The second clause is not a sentence. It is a fragment. Right: “Students are expected to study when they enter the library.” Right: “When they enter the library, students are expected to study.” Here, two clauses combine to form one complex sentence.
Two independent clauses are joined by a semicolon, not by a comma. Examples: Wrong: “Our failure reminds us that we cannot live holy lives without God’s help, he is the source of our spiritual strength.” Right: “Our failure reminds us that we cannot live holy lives without God’s help; he is the source of our spiritual strength.”
“Like,” “providing,” and “without” are not conjunctions and should NOT be used to introduce dependent clauses. Examples: Wrong: “I’m not rich like some people are.” Right: “I’m not rich as some people are.”
An adverbial modifier should not come between a verb and its direct or indirect object. The adverbial modifier usually comes at the beginning or at the end of the sentence. Examples: Wrong: “My wife and I went in 1993 to China.” Right: “My wife and I went to China in 1993.” Right: “In 1993, my wife and I went to China.”
Avoid ambiguity. String words together in an orderly sequence so that your thoughts are clear. Misplaced words, phrases, and clauses can lead to confusion, or even to laughter. Wrong: “My wife kissed me as I was sleeping on the forehead.” On whose forehead was I sleeping? Right: “As I was sleeping, my wife kissed me on the forehead.”
Do not change the subject, number, person, verb tense, voice or mood in the middle of a sentence. Be consistent. Wrong: “As long as we occupy this physical body, I will never be completely out of sin’s reach.” A shift is made in number – from “we” to “I.” Right: “As long as I occupy this physical body, I will never be completely out of sin’s reach.” Now, the number and person are consistent.
Correlative conjunctions are used to join two, and no more than two, items of equal rank. Example: Wrong: “I like neither okra, broccoli, nor brussel sprouts.” There are more than two items in this sentence; thus a correlative conjunction cannot be used. Right: “I don’t like okra, broccoli, or brussels sprouts.”
Correlative conjunctions should be placed as near as possible to the items they connect. Examples: Wrong: “I neither like broccoli nor brussel sprouts.” Here, the conjunction “neither” has become an adverb. Right: “I like neither broccoli nor brussel sprouts.”
Correlative conjunctions are used to connect items that are parallel in structure, that is, items that are alike in function. Wrong: “Maudine is not only a good wife, but also she is able to manage the office well.” “Wife” (predicate nominative) and “able” (adjective) cannot be joined by correlative conjunctions. Right: “Maudine is not only a good wife, but also a good office manager.” Now, the elements are parallel. “Good wife” and “good office manager” are both predicate nominatives.
In appositions, a pronoun must agree in number and case with the noun it replaces. ( An appositive is a word or phrase inserted into a sentence to explain some element in the sentence more clearly.) Wrong: “The student body president has chosen two students, you and I, to represent the freshman class.” Here, the noun “students” is the object of the verb “chosen” and is thus in the objective case. Therefore, the pronouns in the apposition must be in the objective case also. Right: “The student body president has chosen two students, you and me, to represent the freshman class.”
Don’t use words that repeat what you have already said. Avoid such expressions as “more especially,” “most greatest,” “repeat again,” and “very highly.” In these expressions, “more,” “most,” “again,” and “very” are redundant. Poor form: “Professor Jones is very highly respected by his students.” The adverb “very” is unnecessary. Good form: “Professor Jones is highly respected by his students.”
Don’t repeat a noun by duplicating it with a pronoun. That is, don’t place a pronoun immediately after its antecedent. Examples: Wrong: “Peter, he looked at things from a human point of view.” Right: “Peter looked at things from a human point of view.”
Don’t write long, complicated, wordy, confusing sentences. Get to the point. Be concise. Condense, condense, condense. This rule, as much as any other, will help you become a better writer. Poor form: “Grandma Moses was an old woman who was nearly eighty years old when she took an artist’s brush in her hand and began experimenting with a new style of painting pictures on canvas.” Good form: “Grandma Moses was nearly eighty years old when she began painting on canvas.
Be sure the meaning is clear when you use the pronouns “this” and “that” with reference to a previously stated thought. Poor form: “Many teenagers rebel against their parents and decide to experiment with sex, drugs, and alcohol. Later, they regret this.” This what? This rebellion? This sex? This alcohol? Good form: “Many teenagers rebel against their parents and decide to experiment with sex, drugs, and alcohol. Later, they regret this decision.” Or, “Later, they regret this experimentation.” Here, the reference is clear.
If necessary, repeat a word or phrase to ensure clarity. Example: Wrong: “I visited my friend and tax consultant.” How many people did I visit? One, or two? Right: “I visited my friend before I visited my tax consultant.”
Do not leave modifiers and verbals dangling, that is, without clear reference to some other part of the sentence. Examples: Wrong: “Problems often confront students that call for great patience.” Do the students call for great patience? Right: Students are often confronted by problems that call for great patience.” Now, the meaning is clear. The problems call for patience.
Negative modifiers such as “barely,” “hardly,” and “scarcely” should not be used with other negative modifiers. Examples: Wrong: “My ninety-two old mother can’t hardly see.” This sentence suggests that my mother can see well. A negative + a negative carries a positive meaning. Right: “My ninety-two old mother can hardly see.”
Once you establish a pattern in a series of thoughts, stay with that pattern throughout the sentence. Example: Poor form: “He runs fast, he swims fast, drives fast, and is always the first to finish eating.” The noun + verb + complement pattern established in the first two groups is not followed in the final two groups, and the rhythm is broken: Better form: “He runs fast, swims fast, drives fast, and eats fast.” When thoughts are presented in a consistent pattern, their impact upon the mind is like blows of a battering ram.
In a series of two or more coordinate units, be sure the units are grammatically parallel. That is, be certain that the units are all nouns, pronouns, verbs, adverbs, adjectives, infinitives, gerunds, etc. Examples: Wrong: “Snow skiing is more dangerous than to ski on the water.” “Snow skiing” is a gerund, and “to ski” is an infinitive. Mixing gerunds and infinitives in this fashion interferes with the flow of thinking. Right: “Snow skiing is more dangerous than water skiing.”
The subject of a sentence must agree with its verb in number. A singular subject requires a singular verb, and a plural subject requires a plural verb. Example: Wrong: “We is engaged in a war against the forces of evil, but our weapons has the power of God.” Right: “We are engaged in a war against the forces of evil, but our weapons have the power of God.”
When the subject and verb are separated by a phrase, ignore the phrase in establishing subject-verb agreement. Examples: Wrong: “Darol, as well as his wife and eight children, like Mexican food.” “Darol” is singular, and “like” is plural. They don’t match. Right: “Darol, as well as his wife and eight children, likes Mexican food.” “Darol” is the subject, and “likes” is the verb.
When the predicate nominative and the subject differ in number, the verb must agree with the subject. Examples: Wrong: “Motorcycles is Rick’s great love.” The subject, “motorcycles,” is plural, while the predicate nominative, “love,” is singular. The verb “is” must match the subject, “Motorcycles.” Right: “Motorcycles are Rick’s great love.” Now, turn the sentence around and see what happens.
When the subject consists of a percentage or a fraction, the prepositional phrase that follows the subject determines whether the verb is singular or plural. Examples: Wrong: “Fifty-five percent of the people in Oregon is in favor of reducing property taxes.” The prepositional phrase following the subject is, “of the people.” “People” is plural, so the verb must be plural also. Right: “Fifty-five percent of the people in Oregon are in favor of reducing property taxes.” Now “people” and “are” agree in number.
The names of college courses, companies, countries, and organizations, and the titles of articles, books, and plays require singular verbs even when their names appear to be plural. Wrong: “Mathematics have been described as the only pure science.” Right: “Mathematics has been described as the only pure science.”
Dependent clauses that begin with “so that” usually use helping verbs “can/could,” “may/might,” and‚ “will/could” to express cause, purpose, or reason. Examples: “I’m doing my homework now so that I can go to the basketball game tonight.” “My roommate did his homework this morning so that he could go to the game.” “Wayne and I climbed to the top of the minaret so that we could get a birds-eye view of downtown Tirana.”
When two subjects are linked by “or” or “nor,” the verb agrees in number with the subject that is closer to it. Wrong: “Neither the teachers nor the principal are happy about the strike.” Right: “Neither the teachers nor the principal is happy about the strike.”
When a direct quotation is changed to an indirect quotation, the point of view changes, and verb tense changes: Present and future tenses become past. Present progressive becomes past progressive. Past becomes past perfect, and past progressive becomes past perfect progressive. Examples: Direct: Janet said, ‘I eat lunch at this restaurant every day.” Indirect: Janet said that she ate lunch at that restaurant every day. The present, “eat,” becomes past, “ate.” Notice also that the point of view changes. “I” changes to “she,” and “this” to “that.” Direct: Raynette asked, “Will you write an article for our bulletin?” Indirect: Raynette asked if I would write an article for their bulletin. “Will you write” becomes “if I would write,” and “our bulletin” becomes “their bulletin.”
In an indirect quotation, either the verb or the helping verb in a dependent clause must agree with the verb in the main clause. Direct: Paul wrote, “The fruit of the Spirit is love, joy, peace, patience, kindness, goodness, faithfulness, gentleness, and self-control.” Indirect: Paul wrote that the fruit of the Spirit was love, joy, peace, patience, kindness, goodness, faithfulness, gentleness, and self-control. Notice that past tense verbs are used in both clauses.
Count nouns are modified by adjectives such as “many,” “a large number of,” “a few,” and “fewer . . . than.” Examples: “Many people are afraid of snakes.” “A large number of people are traveling abroad these days.” “A few students in our Physics class will make A’s.” “I have fewer children than my brother does.”
Non-count nouns are modified by adjectives such as “much,” “a large amount of,” “a little,” and “less . . . than.” Examples: “How much homework did your Math teacher assign? “It is rumored that John has a large amount of money in the bank.” “Please put a little butter on my toast.” “I have less energy than you do.” Wrong: “Much people came to the party.” Right: “Many people came to the party.”
A noun used as an adjective remains singular even if the noun it modifies is plural.Example: “Many Albanian people live in six-story apartment buildings.” Note the following rule:
When one noun phrase follows another noun phrase with nothing in between, something is missing. Wrong: “Healthy spiritual growth, healthy physical growth, require a long period of time.” Right: “Healthy spiritual growth, like healthy physical growth, requires a long period of time.”
_When a noun phrase is the subject of a sentence and begins with “a number of,” a plural verb is used. When it begins with “the number of,” a singular verb is used. Wrong: “The number of murders in American cities are declining.” Right: “The number of murders in American cities is declining.” Right: “A number of safeguards have been put in place by NASA to prevent another spacecraft explosion.”
If a collective noun is used in a way that makes us think of the group as a unit, it requires a singular verb. If it is used in a way that makes us think of the units within the group, it requires a plural verb. Examples: Singular: “This airline crew has an excellent safety record.” Plural: “The crew were bailing out one by one.”
Nouns that express quantity may be singular or plural, depending on whether they express a quantity measured as a whole, or a quantity measured item-by-item. Examples: Singular: “One hundred dollars doesn’t go far these days.” Plural: “One hundred dollars were given out to the children.” Singular: “Ninety years is a long time for a person to live.” Plural: “Ninety years are as one day to God.”
When a noun is modified by “the” plus a number, an ordinal is used. Wrong: “The one time Rutherford Platt tested the growing power in a squash, he was amazed by the results.” Right: “The first time Rutherford Platt tested the growing power in a squash, he was amazed by the results.”
When a noun is followed by a number, a cardinal is used. Wrong: “This is Lesson Fourth in Book Second of the WEI Advanced English Course.” Right: “This is Lesson Four in Book Two of the WEI Advanced English Course.” Right: “In this study, you have just learned Grammar Rule Forty-one.
“He,” “she,” and “it” are singular pronouns and are never used with “don’t.” On the other hand, “I,” “we,” “you,” “and “they” are never used with “doesn’t.” Wrong: “He don’t have any money.” Right: “He doesn’t have any money.”
The pronoun “you” is always used with a plural verb. Wrong: “If you is the Son of God, tell these rocks to become bread.” Right: “If you are the Son of God, tell these rocks to become bread.”
Possessive personal pronouns never take an apostrophe. Wrong: “This is our land, not their’s.” Right: “This is our land, not theirs.”
When a noun and a personal pronoun are used together, the personal pronoun comes last. And when two personal pronouns are used together, the first person pronoun is used last to show courtesy. Wrong: “The company surprised me and George with an award.” Right: “The company surprised George and me with an award.”
When “by” is followed by a reflexive pronoun, the meaning is “alone.” Examples: “Tina stayed at home by herself.” (She stayed alone.) “Matthew built a Lego house by himself.” (He built it alone.)
A reflexive pronoun should never be used as part of a compound subject or as part of a compound object. Wrong: “Maudine and myself made a trip to Germany last fall.” Right: “Maudine and I made a trip to Germany last fall.”
Some indefinite pronouns are always singular and thus require singular verbs and pronouns. Examples: anybody, anyone, anything, each, either, everybody, everyone, everything, it, neither, nobody, none, no one, nothing, one, somebody, someone, something. Wrong: “There are something in the scriptures for everyone.” Right: “There is something in the scriptures for everyone.”
Other indefinite pronouns are always plural and require plural verbs and pronouns. Examples: both, few, many, others, several. Wrong: “Many has tried, but few has succeeded.” Right: “Many have tried, but few have succeeded.”
Some indefinite pronouns are singular OR plural, depending on the way they are used. Examples: all, any, more, most, none, some. Right: “All (of the accusations) are false.” Right: “All (that is in the document) is true.” Right: “Most (of the teachers) are dedicated.” Right: “Most (of the food) is spoiled.”
Some indefinite pronouns (some,somebody, someone, something) are used in positive statements. Example: “If your enemy is thirsty, give him something to drink. (positive statement).
Other indefinite pronouns (any, anybody, anyone, anything) are usually used in negative statements. Example: “Jesus didn’t say anything to the Galilean crowd without using a parable” (negative).
A pronoun must agree with its antecedent in gender, number, and person. The antecedent determines the gender, number, and person of the pronoun. Wrong: “Neither of the two men want to lose their job.” Right: “Neither of the two men wants to lose his job.” Wrong: “She is one of those teachers who loves her students. Right: “She is one of those teachers who love their students.
Be sure the relationship between the pronoun and its antecedent is clear. Wrong: “John told Pete that he had been fired.” Who had been fired? Pete, or John? Right: “John said to Pete, ‘‘You have been fired.’”
When a pronoun is the subject of a verb, an appositive of a subject, or a predicate nominative, it should be in the nominative case. Wrong: “Rick and me went fishing together last summer.” Right: “Rick and I went fishing together last summer.” Wrong: “We, you and me, are going to a movie tonight.” Right: “We, you and I, are going to a movie tonight.” Wrong: “It’s me. I’m him.” Colloquial. Right: “It is I. I am he.” Formal.
When a pronoun is the direct or indirect object of a verb, or the object of a preposition, it should be in the objective case. Wrong: “Who are these words addressed to”? Colloquial. Right: “To whom are these words addressed”? “Whom” is the object of the preposition “to.” Wrong: “The Lord’s instructions comfort we who are suffering.” Right: “The Lord’s instructions comfort us in time of suffering.”
When “as” and “than” are used as conjunctions to compare two elements, the pronoun in the second element should agree in case and number with the noun or pronoun in the first element. Wrong: “I am not as handsome as him.” Right: “I am not as handsome as he.” (is) Wrong: “Bob is smarter than me.” Right: “Bob is smarter than I.” (am)
When “like” is followed by a pronoun, the pronoun must be in the objective case. Wrong: “I want to think like he thinks, act like he acts, and talk like he talks.” In formal written English, “like” cannot be used as a conjunction. Right: “I want to think like him, act like him, and talk like him.”
Linking verbs are followed by adjectives, NOT by adverbs. The most common linking verbs are appear, be, become, prove, remain, and seem. Examples: “He appears happy. I think he is happy. He became discouraged yesterday, but he seems happy today. Let’s hope he remains happy.” In these examples, linking verbs are followed by the adjectives “happy” and “discouraged.” Verbs of the senses (feel, look, smell, sound, and taste) can also be used as linking verbs. Examples:”She feels good.” “She looks good.” “Her music sounds good.” “Her perfume smells good.” “Her food tastes good.” In these sentences, each linking verb is followed by the adjective “good.”
Active verbs are modified by adverbs, NOT by adjectives. When a modifier refers to the verb, describing the action, it is an adverb. Therefore, the adverbial form must be used. Examples:”Sally sings beautifully.” “Edward speaks Chinese fluently.” Some verbs of the senses can function both as linking verbs followed by adjectives AND as active verbs followed by adverbs. Examples:”Margaret appears upset” (adjective).”The police appeared immediately (adverb) after the accident. “Margaret felt sick (adjective) about wrecking her car.” “Susan felt her way carefully (adverb) through the darkness.” Gordon is a good teacher.(adj) Gordon teaches well.(adv) I am a bad joke teller.(adj) I tell jokes badly.(adv) Leo is a superb painter.(adj) Leo paints superbly.(adv) Most journalists are quick thinkers.(adj) Most journalists think quickly.(adv) Many old people are slow drivers.(adj) Many old people drive slowly.(adv)
“Because” is an adverb and is used to introduce an adverbial modifier. Example: “Early Christians changed the world because they prayed.” In this sentence, “because they prayed” is an adverbial modifier that tells more about the verb “changed.” The adverb “because” should never be used to introduce an adjectival modifier.
“Due” is an adjective, and “due to” is used to introduce an adjectival modifier. Example: “Debbie’s popularity is partly due to her smile.” “The phrase “due to her smile” is an adjectival phrase that follows the linking verb “is” and tells more about Debbie’s popularity.
Do not use the adverbs “when” or “where” to introduce adjectival clauses. Wrong: “Metro is the church where they go.” The adverbial clause “where they go” cannot modify a noun such as “church.” Right: “Metro is the church they attend.”
Do not use “a” or “an” after phrases ending with “of” (kind of, manner of, sort of, type of). Wrong: “What kind of a house will you build for me”? Right: “What kind of house will you build for me”?
Do not use “the” before “both.” Wrong: “I’ll seethe both of you in court.” Right: “I’ll see both of you in court.”
To express future action in adverbial clauses, the simple present tense of the verb is used following adverbs such as “after,” “as soon as,” “before,” “until,” and “when. “ Examples: “After we finish our finals, we will leave on summer vacation.” “As soon as I eat breakfast, I’ll be ready to go shopping.” “Before we go fishing, we need to buy some bait.” “Until we learn basic mathematics, we will not be able to comprehend algebra.” “When I turn seventy-five, I will think about retiring.”
Never use both the “er” form and the “more/less” form of a comparative together. Wrong: “Solomon was more wiser than all other kings.” Right: “Solomon was wiser than all other kings.”
Never use both the “est” form and the “most/least” form of a comparative together. Wrong: “There are profound mysteries in the Bible that are beyond the grasp of the most brilliantest scholar.” Right: “There are profound mysteries in the Bible that are beyond the grasp of the most brilliant scholar.”
When comparing members of a group, be careful not to compare something with itself. Wrong: “Rhode Island is smaller than any state in the nation.” Is Rhode Island smaller than itself? Right: “Rhode Island is smaller than any other state in the nation.”
In a subjunctive mood sentence, when the dependent clause begins with “as long as,” “as soon as,” “before,” “unless,” “until,” “when,” or “while,” the verb in the clause is present tense, while the verb in the independent clause is usually future tense. Examples: “As long as we obey the law, we won’t need to be afraid of police officers.” “As soon as I change clothes, I will be ready to go.” “Before they call , I will answer, while they are yet speaking, I will hear” Isaiah 65:24 RSV).
The mood of the verbs in a sentence should be consistent. That is, all the verbs in a sentence should be in the same mood. Wrong: “If I were you and was young again, I’d climb Mt. Hood.” Right: “If I were you and were young again, I’d climb Mt. Hood.”
The voice of the verbs in a sentence should be consistent. That is, all the verbs in a sentence should be in the same voice. Wrong: “The scout master sat down with me, and I was taught how to tie knots.” “Sat” is active voice, and “was taught” is passive. Right: “The scout master sat down with me and taught me how to tie knots.” Both verbs are now in the active voice.
The verb tenses in a sentence should be consistent. That is, all the verbs in a sentence should be in the same tense unless there is a deliberate effort to contrast the time elements. Wrong: “Today, Sea World rescued another baby whale that is sick with a virus.” Note that the verb tenses do not agree with each other. Right: “Today, Sea World rescued another baby whale that was sick with a virus.” Now, both verbs are in the past tense.
When a helping verb is used, the main verb never takes the past tense form. The past participle form of the main verb is used when it follows “had,” “has,” or “have.” Wrong: “We had saw Bopp-Hale Comet on television before looking for it in the sky.” The verb “saw” cannot be used after “had.” Right: We had seen Bopp-Hale Comet on television before looking for it in the sky.” Wrong: “Dorothy has drank five cups of coffee this morning.” Right: “Dorothy has drunk five cups of coffee this morning.”
Gerunds function as nouns and may be modified by possessive nouns and pronouns. Wrong: “Why are you afraid of me driving”? Right: “Why are you afraid of my driving”? Wrong: “Us bearing fruit for God is the theme of Lesson Eight.” Right: “Our bearing fruit for God is the theme of Lesson Eight.” Wrong: “Ruth worrying compounds the problem.” Right: “Ruth’s worrying compounds the problem.”
The questions,”Do you mind?” and “Would you mind?” are followed by gerunds. Examples:”Do you mind taking out the trash?” “Would you mind going to the store and buying a loaf of bread before dinner”?
Certain verbs (admit, appreciate, avoid, can’t help, can’t stand, consider, delay, deny, dislike, enjoy, escape, finish, imagine, keep, miss, mind, miss, practice, put-off, quit, remember, resent, resist, risk, stop, etc.) are commonly followed by gerunds. Examples: “The boys admitted playing hooky from school, but they couldn’t avoid suffering the consequences.” “The boys denied doing anything wrong.” “Would you consider loaning me your car tonight?” “I enjoy looking at the surf.” “We barely escaped being hit by the train.” “After Brady finished taking the test, he left on vacation.” “Imagine Edmund Hillary standing on top of Mount Everest.” “John feels he should keep learning even when he is not in school.”
Be careful not to let a participle dangle loosely in a sentence without a clearly-stated noun or pronoun to modify. Wrong: “Driving down the road, my tire went flat.” Was the tire driving down the road? Right: “Driving down the road, I had a flat tire.” Now it is clear that I, not the tire, was driving down the road. Wrong: “Firing the shotgun, the pheasant fell to the ground.” Did I fire the shotgun? Or did the pheasant fire it? Right: “Firing the shotgun, I watched the pheasant fall to the ground.” Now it is clear that I fired the gun.
The subject and object of an infinitive are both in the objective case. Wrong: “God used you and I to help them in their trouble.” Right: “God used you and me to help them in their trouble.”
Use the verbs “asked,” “said,” and “told” + an infinitive to report a command or a request. Nouns and pronouns may be used after “asked” and “told,” but not after “said.” Right: “Bill asked me to arrange a telephone conference with Artan.” Right: “Bill told me to arrange a telephone conference with Artan.” Wrong: “Bill said me to arrange a telephone conference with Artan.” Wrong: “Jesus said us not to stand and pray loudly on the street corners in order to be seen by men.” Right: “Jesus said not to stand and pray loudly on the street corners in order to be seen by men.” Right: “Jesus told us not to stand and pray loudly on the street corners in order to be seen by men.”
Do not split an infinitive by inserting an adverb between its two parts. Wrong: “The Lord is able to powerfully work through us.” Right: “The Lord is able to work powerfully through us.” Wrong: “Boy Scouts learn to tightly tie knots.” Right: “Boy Scouts learn to tie knots tightly.” Wrong: “Those who have failed are often qualified to best help others avoid failure.” Right: “Those who have failed are often best qualified to help others avoid failure.”
Do not use an infinitive after “have,” “let,” or “make.” Use the simple present form of a verb. Wrong: “We will have a plumber to repair the leaky faucet.” Right: “We will have a plumber repair the leaky faucet.” Wrong: “Do not let the children to leave the playground.” Right: “Do not let the children leave the playground.” Wrong: “We all like to be around people who make us to feel good about ourselves.” Right: “We all like to be around people who make us feel good about ourselves.”
Some verbs (advise, agree, attempt, cause, command, decide, encourage, expect, force, forget, get, happen, hesitate, hope, instruct, intend, invite, know how, learn, like, manage, mean, need, offer, order, persuade, plan, prepare, pretend, promise, refuse, remember, remind, seem, teach, tell, urge, warn, want, wish, etc.) are commonly followed by infinitives. Examples: “The engineer advised us to build our house on higher ground.” “A flat tire caused me to be late for my own wedding.” “The guard commanded us to stop.” “We decided not to challenge the guard’s authority.” “Rick’s mother encouraged him to stay for dinner.” “The government forces us to pay income tax.” “Don’t forget to change clothes before mowing the lawn.” “We hope to visit England next year.” “Mr. Jones instructed his students to turn in their test papers.” “Let’s invite our neighbors to have dinner with us tonight.” “We don’t know how to pray as we should.” “We should learn to forgive each other as God has forgiven us.” “In order to grow spiritually, we must stay in touch with God.” “The doctor persuaded Bob to take his medicine.”
A preposition requires an object. When a pronoun is the object of a preposition, it must be in the objective case. Wrong: “A special assignment was given to Rudy and I.” Right: “A special assignment was given to Rudy and me.” Wrong: “A great reward has been prepared for you and I.” Right: “A great reward has been prepared for you and me.”
It is often necessary to repeat a preposition in order to maintain clarity of thought. Wrong: “A baby depends on its mother more than its father.” Does a baby depend on its mother more than the father depends on her? Or does a baby depend on its mother more than it depends on its father? Right: “A baby depends more on its mother than on its father.” By repeating the preposition, we make the meaning clear.
Do not use a preposition where one is not needed. Wrong: “Of what should we be proud of”? Right: “Of what should we be proud”? (formal) Right: “What should we be proud of”? (informal) Wrong: “This morning, I scraped ice off of the windshield.” Right: “This morning, I scraped ice off the windshield.” As a rule, one should use the fewest possible words to convey a thought clearly.
Informal English allows the use of a preposition at the end of a sentence. The practice of ending sentences with prepositions is becoming common even in formal writing. Examples: “Our new life as a Christian is worth suffering for. One might even say, it’s worth dying for. Heaven is a wonderful place.”
The words “after” and “before” (which usually function as adverbs) may also function as conjunctions and as prepositions. Examples: “Dan and Debbie arrived at the track meet after we did.” In this sentence, “after” is an adverbial conjunction that joins the independent clause, “Dan and Debbie arrived at the track meet” with the dependent clause, “after we did.”
Correlative conjunctions go together: both…and, either…or, neither…nor, not only…but also, whether…or. When an adjective follows one part of a correlative conjunction, an adjective must follow the other. When noun follows one part, a noun or pronoun must follow the other.
Transitional conjunctions are preceded by a semi-colon and followed by a comma. Wrong: “In baptism, we experience Christ’s death to sin, moreover, we experience the power of his resurrection.” Right: “In baptism, we experience Christ’s death to sin; moreover, we experience the power of his resurrection.” Wrong: “More than 3,000 times, the Bible claims to be the word of God, for example, Paul says that all scripture is given by God.” Right: “More than 3,000 times, the Bible claims to be the word of God; for example, Paul says that all scripture is given by God.”
“Like” is a preposition that means “similar to. “ Example: “If it looks like a duck and quacks like a duck, it is a duck.” “Like” is NOT a conjunction and must not be used as a conjunction in formal writing. Wrong: “Curt came off the starting blocks like he was shot from a canon.” Here, “like” is erroneously used as a conjunction. Right: “Curt came off the starting blocks like someone shot from a canon.” Now, “like” is properly used as a preposition.
“Different from” is a comparison phrase meaning “to be unlike.” Never say, “different than.” “Than” is a conjunction, not a preposition. Wrong: “The speech of people in the southern United States is different than that of northerners.” Right: “The speech of people in the southern United States is different from that of northerners.”

Prefixes (A prefix is a syllable or group of letters affixed to the beginning of a word in order to change its meaning)

a or ab, Latin, meaning “away, away from, from, not.” Example 1: “By sacrificing himself, Jesus averted a great human tragedy.” That is, he “turned away” a great tragedy. Example 2: “Hold fast to what is good, abstain from every form of evil”
ad - Latin, meaning “to, at, toward.” (When “ad” comes before word stems beginning with c, d, f, g, l, m, q, r, s, and t, it changes to the letter that follows.) Example 1: “Most children adapt to new cultures more readily than adults do.” That is, they “fit to” or adjust to new cultures more easily. Example 2: “A prefix is a syllable affixed to the beginning of a word.” That is, it is fastened to the beginning of a word.
alter - Latin, meaning “other, change.” Example: “Most Christians alter their lifestyles when they are baptized into Christ.” That is, they “change” their lifestyles.
ante - Latin, meaning “before.” Example: “In grammar, an antecedent is the word, phrase, or clause to which a pronoun refers.” That is, it “goes before” the pronoun.
anti or ant - Greek, meaning “against, opposite to, counteracting.” Example: “Certain strands of bacteria no longer respond to antibiotics.” That is, they are not affected by chemicals that are “against the life” of bacteria.
auto - Greek, meaning “self.” Example 1: “The automobile is a wonderful invention.” That is, the automobile, a “self moving” vehicle, is a wonderful invention. Example 2: “He began writing his autobiography the day he retired.” That is, he began writing a “self written” story of his own life.
bi - Latin, meaning “two,” “twice.” Example 1: “Most Hispanics in America are bilingual.” That is, they speak “two tongues” or languages. Example 2: “I bought my first bicycle when I was ten.” That is, I bought my first “two wheeled” vehicle.
bio - Greek, meaning “life.” Example 1: “Biology was one of my favorite subjects in high school.” That is, I enjoyed studying “life words” or the science of life. Example 2: “This detergent is biodegradable.” That is, it is capable of being “degraded or decomposed by bacterial life.”
chron - Greek and Latin, meaning “time.” Example: “The problem of sin is chronic.” That is, it has been around for a long time. It is a “long lasting,” recurring problem.
circum - Latin, meaning “around,” “about,” “surrounding.” Example 1: “The circumference of this redwood tree is forty two feet.” That is, the “distance around” the tree is forty two feet.” Example 2: “Magellan was the first man to circumnavigate the earth”? That is, he was the first to “sail around” the earth?
com - Latin, meaning “together” or “with.” (“Com” becomes “col” before “l”; it becomes “con” before “c,” “d,” “f,” “g,” “j,” “n,” “q,” “s,” “t,” “v.” It becomes “cor” before “r,” and “co” before “h,” “w,” and all vowels.) Example 1: “Most Americans object when the government regulates commerce.” That is, they object when the government regulates the way people “merchandise together.” Example 2: “The young people collected hundreds of dollars worth of soft drink cans.” That is, they “gathered together” the cans. Example 3: “James conferred with his teacher before taking the test.” That is, they “discussed together” the test.
com - Latin prefix used to intensify the meaning of a word Example 1: “As the head of the church, Christ has the right to command us.” That is, he definitely has the authority and the power to commit us to what is true and right. Example 2: “A good writer condenses his thoughts and words.” That is, he makes them “very dense, compact, and compressed.”
contra - Latin, meaning “against,” “opposite,” “opposed to.” Example 1: “The fossil records and the Second Law of Thermodynamics contradict the Theory of Evolution.” That is, they “speak against” it. Example 2: “Doctor assisted suicide is contrary to the laws of God.” That is, it is against the laws of God.
de - Latin, meaning “away from, down.” Example 1: “A faulty switch caused the train to derail.” That is, the switch caused it to run “away from” the rail. Example 2: “The senator declined to comment.” That is, he “bent away from” commenting.
dis - Latin, meaning “separation, apart, away.” Example 1: “For the word of God is living and active, sharper than any two edged sword, . . . discerning the thoughts and intentions of the heart” (Hebrews 4:12, RSV). That is, the word of God “separates apart” the thoughts and intentions of the heart. Example 2: “Mary became ill as she dissected a frog in her biology laboratory.” That is, she “cut apart” a frog.
dys - Greek, meaning “bad, ill, faulty, difficult.” Example 1: “American tourists who travel abroad often suffer from dysentery.” That is, they often suffer from “bad bowels.” Example 2: “Johnny comes from a dysfunctional family.” That is, he comes from a family that “functions badly,” where members of the family do not live and work together in harmony.
eu - Greek, meaning “good, well.” The opposite of “dys.” Example 1: “In the United States, ‘rest room’ is a euphemism for toilet.’” That is, it is a “good voice” or pleasant sounding word for “toilet.” Example 2: “Most funerals include a eulogy.” That is, someone says “good words” about the person who has died.
ex - Greek, meaning “out, out of, from.” Example: “In Albania, archaeologists are excavating ancient Apolonia.” That is, they are “hollowing out” or digging a hole in the ruins.
extra - Latin, meaning “outside, outside the scope of, beyond.” Example 1: “Members of the body of Christ love each other with an extraordinary love.” That is, their love is “out of the usual order.” It is exceptional, remarkable. Example 2: “All extraneous material should be eliminated from an essay. That is, the essay should include no “strange or foreign” material that is “outside” the scope of the theme.
fore - English prefix meaning “in front of, before, ahead of.” Example 1: “The weather forecast calls for rain.” That is, the weatherman “tells ahead of time” that it is going to rain. Example 2: “John the Baptizer was the forerunner of Jesus.” That is, he “ran before” Jesus to prepare the way for his coming.
in - Latin, meaning “in, into, within, on.” “In” becomes “il” before “l,” “im” before “m,” and “ir” before “r.” Example 1: “Sawdust was once incinerated, but now it is turned into building materials.” That is, sawdust that was once burned “into ashes” is now being used in construction. Example 2: “The floodlights illuminated the parking lot.” That is, they put the parking lot “in light.” Example 3: “In order to grow crops, farmers in the desert must irrigate.” That is, they must put “water on” their land.
in - Latin, meaning “no, not.” Before “l,” “in” becomes “il.” Before “m” it becomes “im.” Before “r” it becomes “ir. Example 1: “In the body of Christ, some members become inactive and fail to function. That is, they are “not active.” Example 2: “Millions of Americans are functionally illiterate.” That is, they “do not read” well enough to function normally. Example 3: “Here is where the irresistible force meets the immovable object.” That is, a force that can “not be resisted” meets the object that can “not be moved.”
inter - Latin, meaning “among, between.” Example 1: “Two interstate highways converge in Portland, Oregon.” That is, two highways which run “between states” come together in Portland. Example 2: “The TOEFL is designed especially for international students.” That is, for students who come from “among the nations.” Example 3: “We all ate popcorn and sipped cokes during the intermission.”That is, we ate and drank “between sends or starts.”
intra - Latin, meaning “within, inside.” Example 1: “In American high schools, many students are involved in intramural sports.” That is, they participate “within the walls.” Example 2: “After major surgery, hospital patients in America are fed intravenously.” That is, they are fed through a needle “within a vein.”
mal , male - Latin, meaning “bad, wrong, evil.” Example 1: “Jesus Christ was crucified between two malefactors.” That is, he was crucified between two “evil doers,” or criminals. Example 2: “In the body of Christ, there is no place for a malevolent spirit.” That is, there is no place for a spirit of “evil wishes.”
micro - Greek, meaning “small.” Example 1: “Some libraries contain thousands of books that are recorded on microfilm.” That is, the books have been photographed on “small film” for convenience of storage and transportation. Example 2: “Microbiology is a branch of science that deals with the study of microscopic life.” “Microbiology” means “words about small life,” particularly bacteria. “Microscope” means “small view.”
mono - Greek, meaning “single, one.” Example 1: “A monorail train connects downtown Seattle with the famous Space Needle.” That is, there is a train that runs on “one rail.” Example 2: “Monogamy, rather than polygamy, is the Biblical ideal for marriage.” That is, “one marriage,” not many, is the ideal.
multi - Latin, meaning “many.” Example: “Most Europeans are multilingual.” That is, they speak “many languages.”
neo - Greek, meaning “new, recent.” Example 1: “Dr. Garner is a proponent of neoclassical English art.” That is, he advocates a “new classical” form of art similar in style to the classical English art of the period from A.D. 1660 to 1740. Example 2: “This stone axe dates back to the neolithic age.” That is, it was made during the “new stone” age when mankind developed polished tools and weapons.
non - Latin, meaning “not.” Example 1: “A Spirit-filled Christian cannot have a nonchalant attitude.” That is, he cannot be “not warm or not enthusiastic.” Example 2: “Today, the church is led by non-inspired people.” That is, the church is led by people who are “not inspired” directly by the Holy Spirit.
omni - Latin, meaning “all.” Example 1: “God in the Bible, is omnipotent, omnipresent, and omniscient.” That is, he is “all powerful,” “all present,” and “all knowing.” He is everywhere, and he knows everything. Example 2: “In almost every major city of the world, one can travel by omnibus.” That is, on large buses that transport “all” the people.
per - Latin, meaning “through.” Example 1: “At Gettysburg, Pennsylvania, the Confederate soldiers could not permeate the defenses of the Union Army.” That is, they could not “pass through” them. Example 2: “It seems that God never intended for miraculous gifts to be a permanent part of the church.” That is, he did not intend for them to “remain through” history..
poly - Greek, meaning “much” or “many.” Example 1: “God permitted polygamy in Old Testament times, but he has always been in favor of monogamy.” That is, he permitted “many marriages” in Old Testament times but he has always been in favor of “one marriage” between one man and one woman for life. Example 2: “A piano is a polyphonic instrument of music.” That is, it is an instrument with “many voices,” sounds, and harmonies.
post - Latin, meaning “behind” or “after.” Example 1: “Every major university has a post-graduate program.” That is, it has a program for students “after graduation.” Example 2: “John and Jane decided to postpone their marriage until after Christmas.” That is, they decided that their marriage would be “put after” Christmas.
pre - Latin, meaning “before” or “in front of.” Example 1: “It is better to prevent a mistake than to correct it.” That is, it is better to “come before” a mistake and keep it from happening than to correct it afterwards. Example 2: “A student who prepares well will make a high score on tests.” That is, a student who “sets things in order beforehand” will do well on tests. Example 3: “John had a premonition that he was going to die in a plane crash.” That is, he had a “forewarning.”
pro - Greek, meaning “before,” or “prior.” Example “The Holy Spirit provided prophets and teachers for the early church.” That is, the Holy Spirit “saw beforehand” the need for prophets and teachers and made them available to the church.
pro - Latin, meaning “forward.” Example 1: “After you have finished Lesson Five, proceed to Lesson Six.” That is, “go forward” to Lesson Six. Example 2: “Most commercial airplanes are jet propelled .” That is, they are “driven forward” by jet engines.
re- Latin, meaning “back” or “again.” Example 1: “The McCaughey septuplets were kept alive by respirator known as ‘ventilators.’” That is, they were kept alive by machines that helped them to “breathe back” freely. Example 2: The Holy Spirit caused the apostles to remember all the things that Jesus had taught them.” That is, he helped them “to bring to remembrance again” the things Jesus had taught them.
retro - Latin, meaning “backward” or “back.” Example 1: “This year’s increase in social security benefits is retroactive to January 1.” That is, it “acts backward” and takes effect as of January 1 of this year. Example 2: In retrospect, I realize I should have eaten lunch before boarding that shuttle flight to San Francisco.” That is, “looking back,” I can see that I should have eaten something before boarding an airplane that serves only peanuts and fountain drinks.
semi - Latin, meaning “half.” Example 1: “The accident victim was only semiconscious when the ambulance arrived.” That is, the victim was only “half conscious.” Example 2: “The NationsUniversity board will have its semi annual meeting on December 29.” It meets every “half year.”
sub - Latin, meaning “under” or “below.” Example 1: Whoever heard of a yellow submarine”? That is, whoever heard of a yellow vessel in which there is “life under the sea”? Example 2: “When people are baptized into Christ, they are submerged in water.” That is, they are “plunged under” the water.
tele - Greek, meaning “far off.” Example 1: “Most American homes have at least one television set.” That is, they have a machine for seeing things that are far away. Example 2: “Astronomers study the stars through telescopes.” That is, through instruments that allow them to “view far off things.”
trans - Latin, meaning “across.” Example 1: “Patients often need blood transfusions during surgery.” That is, they need to have blood “poured across” into their veins. Example 2: “The mystery of God transcends our highest human thought.” That is, it “climbs across” and goes beyond our understanding.
uni - Latin, meaning “one.” Example 1: “When I was a young man, I rode a unicycle.” That is, I rode a vehicle with only “one wheel.” Example 2: “Christ died to unify people in one body, the church.” That is, the death of Christ draws people together and “makes them one” in his church.

Roots

brev- Latin, meaning “short.” Example 1: “‘It’s’ is an abbreviation of ‘it is.’” That is, to write “it’s” is “to make short” the phrase “it is.” Example 2: “Richard spoke to us briefly about his work in the Philippines.” That is, he made a “short” talk about his work.
cede- -ceed- -cess- Latin, meaning “go.” Example 1: “We who are alive, who are left until the coming of the Lord, shall not precede those who have fallen asleep” (1 Thessalonians 4:15 RSV). That is, we will not “go before” those who have died in Christ. Example 2: “Most American drivers exceed the speed limit on major highways.” That is, they “go out” or “go beyond” the speed limit.
-cide- Latin, meaning “kill.” Example 1: “Suicide is one of the leading causes of death among American teenagers.” That is, many teenagers “kill themselves.” Example 2: “Detective Pearson works in homicide.” That is, he works in the department dealing with “manslaughter,” “man-killing,” or murder. Example 3: “In some places, insecticides are contaminating the ground water.” That is, “insect killing” agents are seeping into the water.
-clam-, -claim- Latin, meaning “shout” or “cry out.” Example 1: “An exclamation mark is used in English writing to express strong feeling.” “Exclamation” means “to cry out.” Example 2: “Jesus came to proclaim release to the captives and to set at liberty those who are oppressed.” That is, he came to “cry out before” the people a message of liberation.
-clin- Latin, meaning “to lean.” Example 1: “The witness declined to answer the attorney’s questions.” That is, the witness “leaned away from” answering questions. Example 2: “Grandpa likes to recline in his recliner.” That is, he likes to “lean back” in his chair that reclines.
-cogn- Latin, “co” meaning “together” + Greek “gno” meaning “to know”. Example 1: “Everybody needs to be recognized.” That is, everyone needs to be “known again” or acknowledged. Example 2: “Christians should be cognizant that their bodies are the temple of the Holy Spirit.” That is, they should “know” or be aware of it.
-corp- Latin, meaning “body.” Example 1: “Corporal punishment has been outlawed in American public schools.” That is, “bodily” punishment has been outlawed. Example 2: “There has been no corpse in Jesus’ tomb since the day of his resurrection.” That is, there has been no the dead “body.”
-cred- Latin, meaning “believe.” Example 1: “A university student should be neither too credulous nor too skeptical.” That is, a student should be neither too quick “to believe” nor too slow. Example 2: “The gate guard stopped the man and asked for his credentials.” That is, he asked for “believable” identification papers.
-cur- , -curr- , or -curs- Latin, meaning “run.” Example 1: “The actor gave his script a cursory glance before going on stage.” That is, he “ran” his eyes over the script quickly. Example 2: “The swimmer was caught in a strong current as he crossed the river.” That is, he swam into water that was “running” rapidly.
-doc- , -doct- Latin, meaning “to teach.” Example 1: The Christians in Jerusalem continued steadfastly in the apostles’ doctrine. That is, they continued learning the apostles’ “teachings.” Example 2: “There are thousands of ancient documents that support the authenticity of the Biblical text.” That is, there are thousands of ancient written materials which “teach” us that the Biblical text is genuine.
duc- , -duct- Latin, meaning “to lead, bring, or draw.” Example 1: “Arthur Fiedler, the late conductor of the Boston Pops, was one of America’s most popular musicians.” That is, he was a popular “leader” of the Boston Pops orchestra. Example 2: “Drinking and driving are not conducive to safety on the highway.” That is, they do not “lead” to safety.
fer- Latin, meaning “to bring, carry, or bear.” Example 1: “The existence of design in the universe infers the existence of an intelligent designer.” That is, the existence of design “brings” us to the conclusion that there must be an intelligent designer. Example 2 “He [God] has delivered us from the dominion of darkness and transferred us to the kingdom of his beloved Son” (Colossians 1:13 RSV). That is, Christians have been “carried across” from the kingdom of darkness to the kingdom of Christ.
-fid- Latin, meaning “faith, belief, trust.” Example 1: “Believers have confidence that Christ has gone to prepare a place for them. That is, they have “faith” and “trust.” Example 2: “Marital infidelity is commonplace in today’s world.” That is, “unfaithfulness” between marriage partners is commonplace.
flect- , -flex- Latin, meaning “to bend.” Example 1: “To be happy in life, a person must be flexible.” That is, a person must be able “to bend” without breaking when trouble comes. Example 2: “The Holy Spirit helps us reflect the glory of Christ.” That is, he helps us “bend back” the glory of Christ.
-frag- , -fract- Latin, meaning “to break.” Example 1: “Be careful with that vase. It is fragile.” That is, it is “easily broken.” Example 2: “Bill Nation fractured his leg in a motorcycle accident.” That is, he “broke” his leg.
grad- , -gress- Latin, meaning “step, go.” Example: “You are making progress.” That is, you are “stepping before” or “stepping forward.”
graph- Greek, meaning “to write.” Example 1: “The little boy asked for Michael Jordan’s autograph.” That is, he asked for a “self written” signature–a signature written by Michael’s own hand. Example 2: “Robert Frost wrote an outstanding biography of Abraham Lincoln.” That is, he “wrote” about Lincoln’s “life.”
grat- Latin, meaning “thank” or “favor.” Example 1: “The minister received a gratuity of $100 for performing the wedding ceremony.” That is, he received a $100 gift of “gratitude,” a “thank you” gift. Example 2: “As a worshiping community, the church expresses its gratitude to God.” That is, it expresses its “thanksgiving” and its “favorable” response to God.
her- , -hes- Latin, meaning “to stick, cling.” Example 1: “The metal would not adhere to the glass.” That is, the metal would not stick to the glass. Example 2: “When Christians worship together regularly, there is cohesion in the church.” That is, worship helps them “stick together” as a closely knit community.
ject- Latin, meaning “to throw.” Example 1: “Mr. Simpson was dejected as he left the court room.” That is, he felt “thrown down.” Example 2: “Hot-headed basketball players are often ejected from the game.” That is, they are “thrown out.”
log- Greek, meaning “to speak, reason.” Example: “Most college students take at least one course in psychology.” That is, they “reason,” “speak,” and “study” about the mind.
-mort- Latin, meaning “death, dying.” Example 1: Jesus Christ abolished death and brought life and immortality to light.” That is, he showed us that we will “not die.” Example 2: “The radio commentator was mortified by his slip of the tongue.” That is, he was “made dead” by his mistake. He was so ashamed and humiliated that he died on the inside.
-pel- Latin, meaning “to drive, push.” Example: “After they prayed, the apostles felt impelled to speak God’s message.” That is, they felt “driven from within” to speak up.
-rupt- Latin, meaning “to break.” Example: “Mount St. Helens erupted with a vengeance.” That is, Mount St. Helens “broke out” or exploded violently.
-sequ- , -secut- Latin, meaning “to follow.” Example: “We all have suffered the consequences of our mistakes.” That is, suffering has “followed” our mistakes.
-spec- , -spect- Latin, meaning “to look.” Example 1: “Those who worship God, show their respect for him.” That is, they “look at” and regard him with awe. Example 2: “The apostles made spectacles of themselves for Christ’s sake.” That is, they were something “to behold.”
spir- Latin, meaning “to breathe.” Example: “Early Christians worshiped as they did because the Spirit-inspired apostles taught them how to worship.” That is, the Holy Spirit “breathed into” the apostles and guided them to all truth.
string- , - strict- Latin, meaning “to bind” or “to draw tight.” Example 1: The sergeant laid down stringent rules for the recruits.” That is, he “bound” them by strict, severe rules. Example 2: “The recruits were restricted to the base for the duration of boot camp.” That is, they were “held back” from leaving.
stru- , -struct- Latin, for “to pile up, build.” Example 1: Hundreds of new buildings are under construction in Shanghai, China.” That is, the buildings are being “built.” Example 2: “Those who worship God must worship him according to his instructions.” That is, they must worship according to the words he has “piled up” in the scriptures.
tang- , -tact- , -tig- Latin, meaning “to touch.” Example 1: “Intangible things such as love, joy, and peace are more valuable than material things such as silver and gold.” That is, things that can “not be touched” are sometimes more precious than silver and gold. Example 2: “Abilene Christian University has lost contact with many of its alumni and alumnae.” That is, it has lost “touch.” Example 3: “There are forty eight contiguous states in the U.S.A.” That is, there are forty eight states that “touch” each other.
tract- Latin, meaning “to draw.” Example: “Our attorney is drawing up a contract.” That is, he is “drawing together” an agreement.
vict- , -vinc- Latin, meaning “to overcome, to conquer.” Example 1: “Many people were not convinced that the nanny was guilty of murder.” That is, their doubts were “not overcome.” Example 2: “They were evicted from the apartment for not paying the rent.” That is, they were “conquered or forced from” the apartment.
viv- Latin, meaning “to live.” Example: “What the church needs today is a good revival.” That is, it needs to be made “alive again.”
vor- ,- vour- Latin, meaning “to eat.” Example 1: “The big linebacker had a voracious appetite.” That is, he was “greedy to eat” or devour his food. Example 2: “Lions and tigers are carnivorous beasts.” That is, they are “flesh eating” animals. Example 3: “Cattle, sheep, and goats are herbivorous animals.” That is, they “eat plants.”

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